Myriam Mézières, Actress: Fleurs de sang. But in the books of the New Testament, the argument among Christians over the place of women in the community is implicit; it becomes quite explicit in other sacred texts of that early period. With him went the Twelve, as well as certain women who had been cured of evil spirits and ailments: Mary surnamed the Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out, Joanna the wife of Herod’s steward Chuza, Susanna, and several others who provided for them out of their own resources. "Patricia Kasten, "A great saint with a big case of mistaken identity. [243], The 2018 film Mary Magdalene, starring Rooney Mara as the eponymous character, sought to reverse the centuries-old portrayal of Mary Magdalene as a repentant prostitute, while also combating the conspiracy claims of her being Jesus's wife or sexual partner. [284], There are many references to Mary Magdalene in the writings of the Baháʼí Faith, where she enjoys an exalted status as a heroine of faith and the "archetypal woman of all cycles". But there was also an expressly philosophical inquiry at work, as Christians, like their pagan contemporaries, sought to define the relationship between spirit and matter. That was the question not only about Mary Magdalene, but about women generally. [195] De Voragine gives the common account of the transfer of Mary Magdalene's relics from her sepulchre in the oratory of Saint Maximin at Aix-en-Provence to the newly founded Vézelay;[202] the transportation of the relics is entered as undertaken in 771 by the founder of the abbey, identified as Gerard, Duke of Burgundy. [288] Indeed he claimed that she surpassed all the men of her time,[289] and that "crowns studded with the brilliant jewels of guidance" were upon her head. In the passages about the anointings, the woman is identified by the “alabaster jar,” but in Luke, with no reference to the death ritual, there are clear erotic overtones; a man of that time was to see a woman’s loosened hair only in the intimacy of the bedroom. Across time, this Mary went from being an important disciple whose superior status depended on the confidence Jesus himself had invested in her, to a repentant whore whose status depended on the erotic charge of her history and the misery of her stricken conscience. Get the best of Smithsonian magazine by email. [71], The earliest description of Jesus's post-resurrection appearances is a quotation of a pre-Pauline creed preserved by Paul the Apostle in 1 Corinthians 15:3–8, which was written roughly 20 years before any of the gospels. What makes the conflict universal is the dual experience of sex: the necessary means of reproduction and the madness of passionate encounter. [9] The main surviving text comes from a Coptic translation preserved in a fifth-century manuscript (Berolinensis Gnosticus 8052,1) discovered in Cairo in 1896. El Proyecto Magdala Un Descubrimiento Del. [178], In an eastern tradition supported by the western bishop and historian Gregory of Tours (c. 538 – 594), Mary Magdalene is said to have retired to Ephesus in Asia Minor with the virgin Mary, where they both lived out the rests of their lives. 17th Annual Photo Contest Finalists Announced. [106] In saying 53, the Dialogue attributes to Mary three aphorisms that are attributed to Jesus in the New Testament: "The wickedness of each day [is sufficient]. She had heard he was dining with the Pharisee and had brought with her an alabaster jar of ointment. The name Mary itself as related to the Virgin Mary has ties associated with Moses’ sister Miriam (a leader of the people) or may be associated with Herod the Great’s Hasmonean wife, Mariamne. [197] Then the governor's wife rises from the dead and tells him that Mary Magdalene has brought her back. [15] Although the Gospel of Mark, the earliest surviving gospel, does not mention Mary Magdalene until Jesus's crucifixion,[26] the Gospel of Luke 8:2–3 provides a brief summary of her role during his ministry:[27]. Los Gatos, CA: Academy for Future Science. They were written 35 to 65 years after Jesus’ death, a jelling of separate oral traditions that had taken form in dispersed Christian communities. Mary recalls her vision, a kind of esoteric description of the ascent of the soul. (It is possible this was an attribution, to Jesus’ time, of a role prosperous women played some years later.) The Magdala Archaeological Project is carried out within the framework of an international project that includes geophysical survey, … "[153] The Church Father Origen (c. 184 – c. 253) defended Christianity against this accusation in his apologetic treatise Against Celsus, pointing to Matthew 28:1, which lists Mary Magdalene and "the other Mary" both seeing the resurrected Jesus, thus providing a second witness. With Gregory’s help, she did. Peter and the others rush to the tomb to see for themselves, then disperse again. [91], In a book published in 2006, Ehrman states that "it appears virtually certain" that the stories of the empty tomb, regardless of whether or not they are accurate, can definitely be traced back to the historical Mary Magdalene,[92] pointing out that, in Jewish society, women were regarded as unreliable witnesses and were forbidden from giving testimony in court,[93] so early Christians would have had no motive to make up a story about a woman being the first to discover the empty tomb. Mary Magdalene, sometimes called Mary of Magdala, or simply the Magdalene or the Madeleine, was a woman who, according to the four canonical gospels, traveled with Jesus as one of his followers and was a witness to … For every woman who makes herself male shall enter into the kingdom of heaven. Give a Gift. "John Rivera, "Restoring Mary Magdalene" in "Worldwide Religious News", "Pseudo-Rabanus Maurus' Life of Mary Magdalene and her sister Martha – Magdalen College Oxford", "Mulieris Dignitatem, John Paul II, 15 August 1988 – Apostolic Letter", "St. Mary Magdalene, Disciple of the Lord - Information on the Saint of the Day", "The liturgical memory of Mary Magdalene becomes a feast, like that of the other apostles, 10.06.2016", "J. Frank Henderson, "The Disappearance of the Feast of Mary Magdalene from the Anglican Liturgy" (2004), pp. And chief among them was Mary Magdalene. [192] Charles II commissioned the building of a new Gothic basilica on the site and, in return for providing accommodation for pilgrims, the town's residents were exempt from taxes. His pontificate marked a solidifying of discipline and thought, a time of reform and invention both. It is widely accepted among secular historians that, like Jesus, Mary Magdalene was a real historical figure. Mary answered and said, "What is hidden from you I will proclaim to you". Antonio Caldara Maddalena ai piedi di Cristo, oratorio (1700). [304][305] The Da Vinci Code also purports that the figure of the "beloved disciple" to Jesus's right in Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper is Mary Magdalene, disguised as one of the male disciples;[306] art historians maintain that the figure is, in reality, the apostle John, who only appears feminine due to Leonardo's characteristic fascination with blurring the lines between the sexes, a quality which is found in his other paintings, such as St. John the Baptist (painted c. [111], In the ancient world, it was almost universally believed that women were inferior to men[110] and that they were, in essence, "imperfect men" who had not fully developed. Who are you looking for?” Supposing him to be the gardener, she said, “Sir, if you have taken him away, tell me where you have put him, and I will go and remove him.” Jesus said, “Mary!” She knew him then and said to him in Hebrew, “Rabbuni!”—which means Master. The portrayal of Mary Magdalene as a prostitute began after a series of Easter sermons delivered in 591, when Pope Gregory I conflated Mary Magdalene, who is introduced in Luke 8:2, with Mary of Bethany (Luke 10:39) and the unnamed "sinful woman" who anoints Jesus's feet in Luke 7:36–50. The Gospel of John was composed around 90 to 95 and is distinct. [230][231], The common identification of Mary Magdalene with other New Testament figures was omitted in the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar, with the comment regarding her liturgical celebration on July 22: "No change has been made in the title of today's memorial, but it concerns only Saint Mary Magdalene, to whom Christ appeared after his resurrection. They (will) undress in their presence in order to let them have back their field and to give it back to them". She turned the mass of her crimes to virtues, in order to serve God entirely in penance. She was the Samaritan woman to whom He said, "Call thy husband". The Gospels themselves, written in those several decades after Jesus, can be read to suggest this erosion because of their emphasis on the authority of “the Twelve,” who are all males. A Woman Called Magdalene Mary Magdalene is referred to by name only twelve times in our New Testament gospels and never again in any of the other New Testament writings. Hurtak, J.J.; Desiree Hurtak (1999). [72][73][74] According to Luke 24:1–12 a group of unnamed women went to the tomb and found the stone already rolled away, as in Mark. [8] Unlike Paul the Apostle, Mary Magdalene has left behind no writings of her own,[9]. Privacy Statement [233] According to historian Michael Haag, these changes were a quiet admission from the Vatican that the Church's previous teaching of Mary Magdalene as a repentant whore had been wrong. The name Mary itself as related to the Virgin Mary has ties associated with Moses’ sister Miriam (a leader of the people) or may be associated with Herod the Great’s Hasmonean wife, Mariamne. [96] He concludes that the idea that early Christians would have had "no motive" to make up the story simply "suffers from a poverty of imagination"[97] and that they would have had all kinds of possible motives,[98] especially since women were overrepresented in early Christian communities and women themselves would have had strong motivation to make up a story about other women being the first to find the tomb. (Even while Christian memory glorifies this act of loyalty, its historical context may have been less noble: the men in Jesus’ company were far more likely to have been arrested than the women.) Judas objects in the name of the poor, and once more Jesus is shown defending the woman. [145], Most of the earliest Church Fathers do not mention Mary Magdalene at all,[151][10][152] and those who do mention her usually only discuss her very briefly. [237] Mary is likewise portrayed as a reformed prostitute in Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice's 1971 rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar. [15][37] The places where she and the other women are mentioned throughout the gospels strongly indicate that they were vital to Jesus's ministry[38][39][40][41] and the fact that Mary Magdalene always appears first, whenever she is listed in the Synoptic Gospels as a member of a group of women, indicates that she was seen as the most important out of all of them. They are legendary and mythological. Ver más ideas sobre maría magdalena, maría de magdala, magdalena. There was a lively diversity of belief and practice, which was reflected in the oral traditions and, later, texts those communities drew on. Jules Massenet, Marie-Magdeleine, oratorio in 3 acts (1873). [220] Because the cult of Mary Magdalene was inextricably associated with the Catholic teaching of the intercession of saints,[221] it came under particularly harsh criticism by Protestant leaders. Although Jesus rejected male dominance, as symbolized in his commissioning of Mary Magdalene to spread word of the Resurrection, male dominance gradually made a powerful comeback within the Jesus movement. [2] She is mentioned by name twelve times in the canonical gospels, more than most of the apostles and more than any other woman in the Gospels, other than Jesus' family. And what did these seven devils signify, if not all the vices? Meyer, Marvin (2004). After the Resurrection, He appeared first to her. [72][73][74] Instead, the women ran away and told no one, because they were too afraid. Lunes Santo. In the Catholic Church, as elsewhere, that need is still being met. |. St. Peter Character : Marie. [102] These texts were written long after the death of the historical Mary Magdalene. Kata "Magdala" sendiri tampaknya berasal dari kata Ibrani "migdal," yang berarti "Menara" atau "benteng". Simultaneously, the emphasis on sexuality as the root of all evil served to subordinate all women. Again, it helps to have a chronology in mind, with a focus on the place of women in the Jesus movement. [87][80] The Gospel of John therefore portrays Mary Magdalene as the first apostle, the apostle sent to the apostles. ", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Magdalene&oldid=998265834, People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar, Pages with numeric Bible version references, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia, Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers, Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers, Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. How Much Did Grandmothers Influence Human Evolution? Phase one is the time of Jesus himself, and there is every reason to believe that, according to his teaching and in his circle, women were uniquely empowered as fully equal. In part, this development arose out of a natural impulse to see the fragments of Scripture whole, to make a disjointed narrative adhere, with separate choices and consequences being tied to each other in one drama. 16-nov-2014 - Explora el tablero "María Magdalena por diversos pintores" de `Abdu'l-Bahá claimed that Mary traveled to Rome and spoke before the Emperor Tiberius, which is presumably why Pilate was later recalled to Rome for his cruel treatment of the Jews (a tradition also attested to in the Eastern Orthodox Church). Discover (and save!) [73][74][72] Then the risen Jesus himself appeared to the women as they were leaving the tomb and told them to tell the other disciples that he would meet them in Galilee. [109] Of the sixty-four questions, thirty-nine are presented by a woman who is referred to as Mary or Mary Magdalene. 9-ago-2014 - Miriam of Magdala, Mary Magdalene, The Black Madonna. This was a matter partly of theological dispute—If Jesus was divine, in what way?—and partly of boundary-drawing against Judaism. They said to him, "Why do you love her more than all of us?" Mary Magdalene is considered to be a saint by the Catholic, and by the Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran churches. This resulted in a widespread belief that she was a repentant prostitute or promiscuous woman. [191][190] The shrine was purportedly found intact, with an explanatory inscription stating why the relics had been hidden. [151][10][152] In his anti-Christian polemic The True Word, written between 170 and 180, the pagan philosopher Celsus declared that Mary Magdalene was nothing more than "a hysterical female... who either dreamt in a certain state of mind and through wishful thinking had a hallucination due to some mistaken notion (an experience which has happened to thousands), or, which is more likely, wanted to impress others by telling this fantastic tale, and so by this cock-and-bull story to provide a chance for other beggars. Equally important, there are three unnamed women who are expressly identified as sexual sinners—the woman with a “bad name” who wipes Jesus’ feet with ointment as a signal of repentance, a Samaritan woman whom Jesus meets at a well and an adulteress whom Pharisees haul before Jesus to see if he will condemn her. Reforma Constitucional De 1936 Google Books. Most Christians were illiterate; they received their traditions through a complex work of memory and interpretation, not history, that led only eventually to texts. Once the sacred texts were authoritatively set, the exegetes who interpreted them could make careful distinctions, keeping the roster of women separate, but common preachers were less careful. [194][195] Mary persuades the governor of the city not to offer sacrifices to a pagan god[194] and later persuades him to convert to Christianity after she proves the Christian God's power by successfully praying to Him to make the governor's wife pregnant. [31] The dialogue consists of a conversation between Jesus, Mary and two apostles - Thomas the Apostle and Matthew the Apostle. [318] None of the canonical gospels imply such a thing[319] and, even in the late Gnostic gospels, where Mary is shown as Jesus's closest disciple,[319] the love between them is not sexual. As the story of Jesus was told and told again in those first decades, narrative adjustments in event and character were inevitable, and confusion of one with the other was a mark of the way the Gospels were handed on. ... Hindi ka pwedeng magdala maski na anong papel sa Korte, i-authenticate mo. [183][182] In the tenth century, Odo of Cluny (c. 880 – 942) wrote a sermon in which he described Mary as an extraordinarily wealthy noblewoman of royal descent. [52] John 19:25 lists Mary, mother of Jesus, her sister, Mary, wife of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene as witnesses to the crucifixion. [60][80] Nonetheless, the details of the accounts differ drastically. And now a jealous Peter complains to his fellows, “Did [Jesus] choose her over us?” This draws a sharp rebuke from another apostle, Levi, who says, “If the Savior made her worthy, who are you then for your part to reject her?”. The cast of Maria di Magdala - 1918 includes: Alfredo Bracci Guido Guiducci Ileana Leonidoff as Maria di Magdala ... Mary (or Maria, Marie, Miriam) of Magdala. The explosive spread of the Good News of Jesus around the Mediterranean world meant that distinct Christian communities were springing up all over the place. [36] The fact that Mary's exorcism is given so little attention may indicate that it was either done in private or that it was not seen as particularly dramatic. The overwhelming consensus of scholars, including King herself, is that the fragment is a modern forgery. These teachings are strange ideas. [257], According to Robert Kiely, "No figure in the Christian Pantheon except Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and John the Baptist has inspired, provoked, or confounded the imagination of painters more than the Magdalene". "Magdala" means "tower" in Hebrew. But neither of these was the main factor in the conversion of Mary Magdalene’s image, from one that challenged men’s misogynist assumptions to one that confirmed them. Mary's epithet Magdalene may mean that she came from the town of Magdala, a fishing town on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. [307] Furthermore, according to Ross King, an expert on Italian art, Mary Magdalene's appearance at the last supper would not have been controversial and Leonardo would have had no motive to disguise her as one of the other disciples,[308] since she was widely venerated in her role as the "apostle to the apostles" and patron of the Dominican Order, for whom The Last Supper was painted. [319] The extremely late Greater Questions of Mary, which is not extant, allegedly portrayed Mary not as Jesus's wife or partner, but rather as an unwilling voyeur. [272] Because of Mary Magdalene's position as an apostle, though not one of those who became official witnesses to the resurrection, the Catholic Church honoured her by reciting the Gloria on her feast day, the only woman to be so honoured apart from Mary, the mother of Jesus. As the sacred books were canonized, which texts were excluded, and why? Cite This Page; Mary Magdalene Biography (d. 100) Updated: Nov 30, 2020 Original: Apr 2, 2018. La stirpe di Maria Maddalena. 28-ott-2016 - Arte-Storia-Libri. Ana Otero Español English With Venus Retrograde In. Sign In Google Accounts. In the Gnostic texts, or Gnostic gospels, Mary Magdalene's closeness to Jesus results in tension with another disciple, Peter, due to her sex and Peter's jealousy of special teachings given to her; some also believe her to be the wife of Jesus. [33][28][29] Bruce Chilton, a scholar of early Christianity, states that the reference to the number of demons being "seven" may mean that Mary had to undergo seven exorcisms, probably over a long period of time, due to the first six being partially or wholly unsuccessful. bronze age bureaucracy by nicholas postgate. The statement that Mary had been possessed by seven demons is repeated in Mark 16:9,[31] part of the "longer ending" of that gospel – this is not found in the earliest manuscripts, and is actually a second-century addition to the original text, possibly based on the Gospel of Luke. [72][74][82] Casey argues that the reason for this abrupt ending may be because the Gospel of Mark is an unfinished first draft. [267] She mentions in particular Hugh of Cluny (1024–1109), Peter Abelard (1079–1142), and Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) among those who gave Mary Magdalene the title of apostolorum apostola (apostle of the apostles). "Deborah Rose, "So, Really ... Who was She? [221] Zwingli demanded for the cult of Mary Magdalene to be abolished and all images of her to be destroyed. "[145][143][146] This story was supposedly the basis for the Borborite Eucharist ritual in which they allegedly engaged in orgies and drank semen and menstrual blood as the "body and blood of Christ" respectively. Having created a myth, they would not remember that it was mythical. Prigioniero Della Mia Libertà Character : Cast. In most theological studies she has been depicted as a reformed prostitute, the redeemed sinner who exemplifies Christ's mercy. “You have the poor with you always, you will not always have me.”. [70] Sanders affirms Jesus's burial by Joseph of Arimathea in the presence of Mary Magdalene and the other female followers as completely historical. The telling of anecdotes was essential to them, and so alterations were certain to occur. Discover (and save!) 20-sep-2020 - Explora el tablero de Jaime Romero "María Magdalena" en Pinterest. [67] Casey argues that Jesus really was given a proper burial by Joseph of Arimathea,[68] noting that, on some very rare occasions, Roman governors did release the bodies of executed prisoners for burial. “Why are you upsetting the woman?” he said to them.... “When she poured this ointment on my body, she did it to prepare me for burial. D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1991), 642. Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches generally do not view these writings as part of the Bible. Not only was Jesus remembered as treating women with respect, as equals in his circle; not only did he refuse to reduce them to their sexuality; Jesus was expressly portrayed as a man who loved women, and whom women loved. [185], The theologian Honorius Augustodunensis (c. 1080 – c. 1151) embellished this tale even further, reporting that Mary was a wealthy noblewoman who was married in "Magdalum",[185] but that she committed adultery, so she fled to Jerusalem and became a "public sinner" (vulgaris meretrix). [301], Dan Brown's 2003 bestselling mystery thriller novel The Da Vinci Code popularized a number of erroneous ideas about Mary Magdalene,[302][303] including that she was a member of the tribe of Benjamin, that she was Jesus's wife, that she was pregnant at the crucifixion, and that she gave birth to Jesus's child, who became the founder of a bloodline which survives to this very day. Natale in casa Cupiello Character : Ninuccia. or [108] The document takes the form of a long dialogue in which Jesus answers his followers' questions. He established the context within which their meaning was measured from then on: She whom Luke calls the sinful woman, whom John calls Mary, we believe to be the Mary from whom seven devils were ejected according to Mark. "[121][116], For early Christians, kissing did not have a romantic connotation and it was common for Christians to kiss their fellow believers as a way of greeting. Of all the apocryphal material, only some of the sayings in the Gospel of Thomas are worth consideration. [259], Mary Magdalene Reading (c. 1500–1510) by Piero di Cosimo, Mary Magdalene (early 1500s) by Ambrosius Benson, Magdalena Penitente (early 1500s) by Giampietrino, Mary Magdalene (1615) by Juan Bautista Maíno, Penitent Magdalene (c. 1576-1578) by El Greco, Mary Magdalene (1615–1616 or 1620–1625) by Artemisia Gentileschi, St Mary Magdalene in Ecstasy (c. 1619–1620) by Peter Paul Rubens, Magdalene with the Smoking Flame (c. 1640) by Georges de La Tour, Christ Appearing to Mary Magdalene (between 1640 and 1650) by Pietro da Cortona, The Magdalene (before 1792) by George Romney, Mary Magdalene (1858–1860) by Frederick Sandys, Christ and Mary Magdalene (1890) by Albert Edelfelt in a Finnish locale, The Eastern Orthodox Church has never identified Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany or the "sinful woman" who anoints Jesus in Luke 7:36–50[260] and has always taught that Mary was a virtuous woman her entire life, even before her conversion. “Go in peace.”. (The all-male composition of “the Twelve” is expressly used by the Vatican today to exclude women from ordination.) [12][13][14], Mary Magdalene's epithet Magdalene (ἡ Μαγδαληνή; literally "the Magdalene") most likely means that she came from Magdala,[15][16][1][b] a village on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee that was primarily known in antiquity as a fishing town. 3 / 53 De Boer, Esther A., The Gospel of Mary Listening to the Beloved Disciple. Indeed, he recognizes it as a sign that “her many sins must have been forgiven her, or she would not have shown such great love.” “Your faith has saved you,” Jesus tells her. Today's reader … 9-ago-2014 - Miriam of Magdala, Mary Magdalene, The Black Madonna. [290], The Baháʼí writings also expand upon the scarce references to her life in the canonical Gospels, with a wide array of extra-canonical stories about her and sayings which are not recorded in any other extant historical sources. "St. Mary Magdalene: Redeeming Her Gospel Reputation". Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Matthew and Mark say the anointing incident occurred at Bethany, a detail that echoes in the Gospel of John, which has yet another Mary, the sister of Martha and Lazarus, and yet another anointing story: Six days before the Passover, Jesus went to Bethany, where Lazarus was, whom he had raised from the dead. neutestamentliche archäologie mary magdalene in legend. In the gospels several women come into the story of Jesus with great energy, including erotic energy. The misery of self-accusation, known in one way or another to every human being, finds release in a figure whose abject penitence is the condition of recovery. Who Was Mary Magdalene? In most theological studies she has been depicted as a reformed prostitute, the redeemed sinner who exemplifies Christ's mercy. magdala educational videos volunteer training. [287] `Abdu'l-Bahá considered her to be the supreme example of how women are completely equal with men in the sight of God and can at times even exceed men in holiness and greatness. In one age after another her image was reinvented, from prostitute to sibyl to mystic to celibate nun to passive helpmeet to feminist icon to the matriarch of divinity’s secret dynasty. [270] Raymond E. Brown, commenting on this fact, remarks that Hrabanus Maurus frequently applies the word "apostle" to Mary Magdalene in this work. Today's reader … Vezi profilurile persoanelor care poartă numele de Myriam Magdal. She is an actress and writer, known for Fleurs de sang (2002) and A Flame in My Heart (1987). culturebooks. Magdala As We Now Know It Request Pdf. Schreiber: ISBN: 6700270013515: Libro : can load this ebook, i produce downloads as a pdf, amazondx, word, txt, ppt, rar and zip. Mary Magdalene,[a] sometimes called Mary of Magdala, or simply the Magdalene or the Madeleine, was a woman who, according to the four canonical gospels, traveled with Jesus as one of his followers and was a witness to his crucifixion and its aftermath. [162][163] Part of the reason for the identification of Mary Magdalene as a sinner may derive from the reputation of her birthplace, Magdala,[164] which, by the late first century, was infamous for its inhabitants' alleged vice and licentiousness.